The documents reveal a centralized administration under the governor of Nippur and its province. The Kushites are the Nilo-Saharan peoples who contributed their binary worldview to the ancient Afro-Asiatic world. Unlike conquerors who preceded them, the Kassites do not seem to have been considered a foreign and intrusive element by the Babylonians in the post-Kassite period and later. 124, no. Agum the prince (? This time period is the same time period we read about in Joshua and Judges (though, some scholars disagree on the exodus timing). (Deuteronomy 12:31 NIV). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Recall that in the first five books of the Bible idolatry was a major issue. The foreign inhabitants of the fortresses, who were mercenaries (rather than foreign invaders) forming a garrison system, gradually controlled the countryside of northern Babylonia. The Kassite kings were called, by themselves and their colleagues in other Near Eastern states, kings of the land of Kar(an)dunia, the latter being a term for Babylonia that may have been Kassite in origin (del Monte and Tischler, 1978, pp. (2011, August 03). Kassite rulers built temples to Babylonian deities. Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archologie, Daniel A. Nevez, 'Provincial administration at Kassite Nippur', Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kassites&oldid=1137673460, States and territories established in the 16th century BC, States and territories disestablished in the 12th century BC, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Son of Burnaburiash I, Grandson of Agum-Kakrime, Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in Dilmun". BIBLE BATTLES - Military History - Strategy and Tactics - Ancient 8, 1966, pp. Kassites: the Main Mesopotamian Power After the First Babylonian Empire After the invasion of Tukulti-Ninurta I the Kassite rulers of Babylonia bore a mixture of Akkadian and Kassite names. diss., Columbia University, 2002. We can learn about the society where the ancient Israelites, and later Jesus and the Apostles, lived through the modern discoveries that provide us clues. Maps are essential for any serious Bible study. Jt. It was located near the Euphrates River . 283304, Armstrong, James A.. "15. There are also a number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites. They introduced war chariots, The Kassites were defeated by the Elamites in 1157 B.C. Adding the years given by the King List to that date would place the beginning of the dynasty in the 18th century BCE, when rulers of the Hammurabi dynasty controlled Babylon. While it is hard sometimes to match particular events from the Amarna letters to exact biblical events from this time period, it is not hard to see that the land and culture in question is the same. The 9th year name of king Samsu-iluna (17491712 BC) of Babylon, the son of Hammurabi mentions them ie. Its end is dated to 1150 BCE. This is the first entry which will cover the Kassite period (1600-1160 BCE). A. Belmonte Marn, Die Orts- und Gewssernamen der Texte aus Syrien im 2. Goblets and wavy sided bowls are commonly found in Kassite pottery deposits. Contemporary Kassite records are not numerous. 17385, Schneider, Bernhard. Krishna was at once a Kurus, an Abhira, and a Yadava. After acting as king of Babylon for a year (1220 BCE), Tukulti-Ninurta I appointed a succession of puppet rulers, who controlled Babylonia for a decade. 95 ff. Gezer has been captured; Kassites and Assyrians. No, King David Never Danced Naked Before The Lord, Top 10 Worst Christian Fashions And Clothing. After these role models are gone, Israel has 15 Judges in this historical account. Idem, Forced laborers in the Middle Babylonian period, Journal of Cuneiform Studies 32, 1980, pp. 11, no. Aktuelle Forschungsprobleme in der vorderasiatischen Archologie, Hildesheim, 1995, pp. In the image below the reasoning behind the test is show. What does the Bible say about the Kassites? - Study.com Idem, Elamites and Other Peoples from Iran and the Persian Gulf Region in Early Mesopotamian Sources, Iran 32, 1994, pp. It was written plain as day in the Egyptian language. Sulaymaniyah Museum, Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. The Kassites first appear as a political factor in Babylonia in 1742 (or 1741) BCE, when they were opposed by both Samsiluna and Rm-Sn Is (see Stol, 1975, pp. The Babylonian Kudurru Inscriptions and their Legal and Sociohistorical Implications". [27] An International System came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites). Roman Empire Map - KASSITES, a people who probably originated in the Zagros and who ruled Babylonia in the 16th-12th centuries BCE. Very little is known of their language because of the lack of texts (only a few incomplete sentences have survived). After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, two new empires rose to power. 257 ff. van Soldt Grammatical Irregularities in Middle Babylonian Texts and their Chronology 165 Helen Malko The Kassites of Babylonia: A Re-examination of an Ethnic Identity 177 Odette Boivin The Palace as Economic Production . Idem, Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 625 B.C. 1-26. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Kassite deities were the pantheon of the Kassites ( Akkadian: Ka, from Kassite Galzu [1] ), a group inhabiting parts of modern Iraq (mostly historical Babylonia and the Nuzi area), as well as Iran and Syria, in the second and first millennia BCE. 2023 Encyclopdia Iranica Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Armstrong, James A., and Hermann Gasche. Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi and ruled the area for 576 years. "The Kassites of Babylonia: A Re-examination of an Ethnic Identity". The first Kassite dynast who ruled Babylonia was Burnaburia I, the tenth king of the Babylonian King List (Brinkman, 1976-80, p. 467), but the possibility that his predecessor, Agum-kakrime (Agum II), already controlled Babylon cannot be excluded (see Podany, 2002, p. 59). [2] There are records of Kassite and Babylonian interactions, in the context of military employment, during the reigns of Babylonian kings Samsu-iluna (1686 to 1648 BC), Ab-euh, and Amm-ditna. All the Kassite rulers up to Katilya IV inclusive bore Kassite names, the only exception being Kudur-Enlil, whose first component is not originally Akkadian but Elamite (cf. Isin in the Kassite Period". Ancient Orient Museum, Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. 20, 2010, pp. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. The first place to start when trying to locate the Garden of Eden is in the Bible. Moses' Kushite Wife Was Zipporah the Midianite - TheTorah.com What do we know about the Ammonites? - CompellingTruth.org Third Interim Report, 1944-5," Iraq, VIII, 1946, von Saldern, Axel. In time, a new dynasty emerged. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. However, Huber (1999-2000, p. 289b) doubts the mere three-year interval. What are the Kassites known for? - All Famous Faqs "The Bronze Age Shipwreck at Ulu Burun: 1986 Campaign." (Non-dynastic usurpers17351701 BCE) There may be several Kassite names in Old Babylonian uarr in the Zagros (see Eidem, 1992, p. 49b, top; Sassmannshausen, 1999, p. 412 with n. 16). K. Nashef, Die Orts- und Gewssernamen der mittelbabylonischen und mittelassyrischen Zeit, Rpertoire Gographique des Textes Cuniformes 5, Wiesbaden, 1982. 2, 2004, pp. The city of Babylon had been a city-state in Mesopotamia for many years. Kassites. MOSAIC GLASS FROM HASANLU, MARLIK, AND TELL AL-RIMAH. Journal of Glass Studies, vol. Mesopotamian History and [6] As was typical in the region, there was some cross pollination with other religions. C. Edens, On the Complexity of Complex Societies: Structure, Power, and Legitimation in Kassite Babylonia, in G. Stein and M. S. Rothman eds., Chiefdoms and Early States in the Near East: The Organizational Dynamics of Complexity, Monographs in World Archaeology 18, Madison, Wis, 1994, pp. 329 f.): ERN u-q-mu-[na(? Zeitschrift Fr Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Archologie, 103(2), 183195. [18] Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around the world. 20712, Brinkman, J. Yanoam is made non-existent. 240-44. The monument mostly speaks of military victories over Egypts enemies. The king at the time of Joshuas invasion was Adoni-zedek (Joshua 10:1-3), which would have had to come after Abdi-Heba since Joshua overtook southern and northern Palestine (Joshua 10-11). The Kassites: The History and Legacy of the Ancient Civilization that Ruled the Babylonian Empire after Hammurabi and the First Babylonian Dynasty examines the impact the Kassites had on the region. ), in O. Lipschits and J. Blenkinsopp, eds., Judah and Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, Winona Lake, 2003, pp. There was an intensive connection between the ruling dynasty and the city of Nippur. The cities of Ashkelon and Gezer were Philistine territory that werent fully conquered by Israel. After Babylon came within the Kassite sphere of control its city-god, Marduk was absorbed into the Kassite pantheon. The Early Kassite Period". 31-45, 47-73, 106-33. They eventually detached themselves from the Babylonian state and its urban centers, probably because they were unpaid or unprovisioned. When Burnaburia II died, his son Kara-harda succeeded him but was assassinated in a rebellion (1328 BCE). 10, 1980, pp. It is either anachronistic, or a poor translation. Life in Old Babylonia: The Importance of Trade | NEH-Edsitement The Kassites entered into Babylon after the Old Babylonian Empire and established their rule around 1531 B.C. During the 16th century BCE. When and how did the Twelve Apostles die? To the east of the Hittite Empire, Mesopotamia was not ruled by a single state or empire during most of the Bronze Age. Idem, The Representation of Foreigners in Neo- and Late-Babylonian Legal Documents (Eighth-Second Centuries B.C.E. When did the Kassites take over the Babylonian Empire? history of Mesopotamia: The Kassites in Babylonia. While the period of enslavement by the Egyptians meant that the Israelites would certainly not be writing anything down, it did not prevent the Egyptians from documenting certain things. Balkan, 1954, pp. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Clayden, Tim. The documentation from Old Babylonian Susa would have strengthened the case for the Zagros as the original country of the Kassites, were it not limited, undated, and to some extent of questionable interpretation (Zadok, 1987, p. 16). 233-42. Babylon | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline 131149, 1949, O. R. Gurney, Further Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Sumer, vol. The problem is that there are several places called Ur. Though the map was inscribed long after the demise of Old Babylonia, archaeological evidence has proven it remarkably accurate in showing the . Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. 177-189, Krebernik, M., and Seidl, U. The Kassites were a warlike people that invaded Babylon during the 16th century B.C. B. Landsberger, Assyrische Knigsliste und dunkles Zeitalter, Journal of Cuneiform Studies 8, 1954, pp. The Mosaic Glass Vessels from Hasanlu, Iran: A Study in Large-Scale Stylistic Trait Distribution The Art Bulletin , Vol. Ancient Mesopotamian literature developed c. 2600 BCE after scribes Studies in Eastern History; Vol. 159-70. 492-507, Brinkman, J. The Kassite (or presumably such) clans are Bimat (including the houses [h] of Nanakt) and possibly the Samhar (De Graef, 1998, pp. The fall of Babylon is reported by a number of ancient sources, including the Cyrus Cylinder, the Greek historian Herodotus, as well as a number of books in the Old Testament. 8, line 46; 9, 41). Some prebendaries in Babylonian temple cities bore Kassite ancestors names as late as the Achaemenid period (see Zadok, 2003, p. 482, with n. 6). Since they had chariots, they were not nomadic, but were fully settled in segregated rural encampments. "17. 3 Where did the Kassite people originally come from? 403-10. Attractive design ideal for your home, office, church . Museum, B. Before entering Mesopotamia they were illiterate mountain people speaking a language that is not known today. His body was never found and also coincidentally there was no chariots available for other wars for quite a while after that. The city was built by Kurigalzu I (probably in the first quarter of the 15th century BCE). The Kassites: An ancient Near Eastern people, the Kassites ruled Babylonia from from 1531 BC to 1155 BC after the fall of the First Babylonian Empire. The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. of Balkan, Kassitenstudien, Archiv fr Orientforschung 18,1957-58, pp. Top level: Mesopotamian Gods in symbolic form, second level: animals and deities playing musical instruments (detail), "Unfinished" Kudurru, Kassite period, attributed to the reign of Melishipak, 1186-1172 B.C.E., found in Susa, where it had been taken as war booty in the 12th century B.C.E. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Kassite period. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. Their capital city was Dur-Kurigalzu. The Kassites seem to be relatively new to the region, in view of the fact that they do not appear among the peoples who inhabited the central and southern Zagros according to Sargonic and Ur III sources. Marduk was already the patron deity of the Babylonians before the Kassites arrived, but this God was elevated to the position of supreme god once Babylon became a powerful Mesopotamian territory. The Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe: The Absurd History Of Papal Edicts Concerning Jews, How Well Do You Know Your Bible? They reportedly dominated this territory from roughly the twelfth through the tenth centuries B.C.E. This negative find, compared with the hypothetical appearance of Kassite names in the documents from Old Babylonian Susa, may strengthen the case for an eastern origin of the Kassites. "18. [25] As the Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon. H. Gasche, J. The Kissites used their alliances to help repel enemies and to establish a trade. 5 (197680, Miller, Jared L.. "3. Prof. David Goldenberg Categories: Beha'alotcha Old Arab Woman, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1882. A. Armstrong, S. W. Cole, and V. G. Gurzadyan, Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology (a Joint Ghent-Chicago-Harvard Project), Mesopotamian History and Environment 2: Memoirs 4. All the mayors have Babylonian names. Charpin, 1995). J. Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur. The texts from the Kassite Period (1600-1160 BCE) start to overlap with the biblical texts of the Old Testament because at this point most nations already had developed a written language and new technologies allowed for communications to now be written down and passed along to others. The detestable worship of Baals and sun/moon gods is documented even within the circumstantial Amarna Letters. History of ancient Babylon - History Rundown 27181. 45363, Koppen, Frans van. Because I thought I believe so different from everyone else. A Guide to 234-37; idem, 1984, pp. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. Idem, Prelude to Empire: Babylonian Society and Politics, 747-626 B.C., Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund 7, Philadelphia, 1984. The private sector, i.e., free families and clans living in urban and rural settlements and represented in community assemblies, included private artisans. 231-246, Brinkman, J. Volume 1 Kardunia. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. What Is The Eye Of The Needle (Matthew 19:23-24 / Mark 10:25)? Babylonia under the Kassites: Some Aspects for Consideration". Babylonia and Assyria - Kids | Britannica Kids | Homework Help A general or Prince called Tuthmoses (later just Moses) whose adopted mother named him after herself, Ahmose was Pharoah of Egypt with his adopted mother mother for a time and may have even been Pharoah by himself as Ahmose I. Ahmose II was most likely the Pharoah of the Exodus. Their leaders came to power in Babylon following the collapse of the ruling dynasty of the Old Babylonian Period in 1595 BC. The Kassites hardly penetrated the fields where acquaintance with the scribal art was required. 412-18. They had some distinct words for their language, but they borrowed most of their dialect from the Babylonian people. 19, no. The Assyrians were one of the great powers of ancient Mesopotamia, rivals of the Babylonians. "Archive und Bibliotheken in Babylon. They were the Babylonians in the south and the Assyrians to the north. This is depicted in letters #287 and his sixth letter, #290. They continued to refer to such units after they had taken control over cities. Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. They even burn their sons and daughters in the fire as sacrifices to their gods. Both sectors were based on the redistributive principle characteristic of Mesopotamian household organization (see Edens, 1994, p. 211). The Tabernacle of Ancient Israel - Brief Overview of the Tabernacle of Moses in the Wilderness and the Ark of the Covenant. (Louvre, Paris; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) [8][9] About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu. [in:], Biggs, Robert D. A Letter from Kassite Nippur. Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. The mosaic glass beakers are thought to have been heirlooms, possibly for ritual use the find spot being a temple. This is when they are shown on the Biblical Timeline with world history. The fact that the river ordeal, which in the Old Babylonian period is mainly recorded in texts from Susa, has become more common in Babylonia during the Kassite than in the preceding (Old Babylonian) period may point to an origin of the Kassites east of Babylonia, but is not conclusive evidence. Books At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14h century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital of Susa. The name Cushan is considered a translation for Kassite or northwest Mesopotamia. Five prominent individuals and several places in Inner Media had Kassite names. Buried History, 51, 57-60. Abraham was from the city of Ur according to Genesis 11:31 above. 850-98. 43 f.; cf. XVI, Fasc. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Download Free PDF View PDF. Several individuals with Kassite names are recorded in the prism of Tunip-Teup from Tikunani (ca. In letter #108, Rib-Hadda gives praises to Baal and also Samas in the sky. 2 And in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, in the fourth month, the ninth day of the month, the city was broken up. According to history, what we do know is that they first appeared as a military force in the time of Samsuiluna (1749-1712 BC), Hammurapi's successor, but that is all we know about them until the time that they established a dynasty in Babylonia, around 1595 BC. Several members of the ruling family of Ellipi (< Middle Babylonian Ullipi, with attenuation of the initial vowel, according to A. Fuchs apud Sassmannshausen, 2001, p. 151b) bore Kassite names. Bill T. Arnold. The sixth letter is the last and most severe letter and the Abdi-zedek begs once again for military help by means of archers from Egypt. Krishna was the father of Abraham (Brahma). [21] At the site of Isin, which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple of Gula. 129, Brinkman, J. Kassites. Volume 1 Kardunia. smite in English - smite English translation - smite meaning in Thank you for your help! A Middle Babylonian Legal Document Raising Problems in Kassite Chronology. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. kassites in the bible. 1499 BCE. BIBL 410 W EEKLY S TUDY Q UESTION 4 One Blood/Introduction to Abraham Answer thoroughly the following questions based on this module/week's Reading & Study material: 1. Chr. The Babylonians were the first to form an empire that would encompass all of Mesopotamia. 2 (1957), pp. For the mineral, see, Brinkman, J. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. Kar-Duniash was the name given to ancient Babylon during the reign of the Kassite kings. Old Testament Overview - General survey of the Old Testament. Who are the ethiopian in the bible? - Egszz.churchrez.org These grants were recorded on stone stelae (sing. Katiliau and the Sumundar Canal: A New Middle Babylonian Royal Inscription. Babylonia was next invaded by the Kassites in the period 1550-1169 b.c. [10][11] A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish. [3], The origin and classification of the Kassite language, like the Sumerian language and Hurrian language, is uncertain, and, also like the two latter languages, has generated a wide array of speculation over the years, even to the point of linking it to Sanskrit. The horse, the sacred animal of the Kassites, probably first came into use in Babylonia at this time. They later regained power yet would be defeated along with many other nations under King Nebuchadnezzar in the seventh century BC. Mu-s-Sa Dates in the Kassite Period. Die Welt Des Orients, vol. The first Jewish king, King Saul, defeated the Ammonites and made them his servants. ''Some Shared Traditions Between Hana and the Kassites'', In Crossing Boundaries and Linking Horizons: Studies in Honor of Michael C. Astour on His 80th Birthday, 417-432.Potts, D. T. (2006). 2. "16. Christ's first name, Jesus, was Yeshua. The administration was directed from the palaces of various cities. And I realized all my beliefs like what Edison believed came from the Bible. Both regions remained linked with the Babylonian government during the 11th and 10th century BCE, but from 850 BCE onwards they passed to the Assyrian sphere of influence (see Brinkman, 1968, pp. Volume 1 Kardunia. Why are Genesis 10 and 11 "significant" chapters? Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. This discovery was made by the same archaeologist (Ludwig Borchardt) that discovered the Nefertiti bust and helped excavate the Amarna region. 3, 1982, pp. R. Zadok, The Origin of the Name Shinar, ZA 74, 1984, pp. First mentioned in Elamite texts of the late 3rd millennium bc, they penetrated into Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium, 210 f.). By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. 54, 1992, pp. Kassites eventually depose him, but damage has been done to the irrigation system. D. R. Frayne, Old Babylonian Period(2003-1595 BC), The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Kassites played a central role in the military. Fourteen letters were exchanged between the pharaohs and two successive Kassite kings, Kadaman-Enlil I (1369-55 BCE) and Burnaburia II (1354-28 BCE). [37] According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable, the last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died. [7], Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. Wikimedia "Studies Concerning the Kassite Period Ekur of Nippur: Construction History and Finds". The Amarna letters, which were mostly written in the early to mid-13th century BCE, capture communication back and forth from Egyptian Ruler Amenophis III and his various loyal vassal-governors in the land of Canaan. 1496 BCE, i.e., just three years after its fall, if to rely upon the evidence of the texts from Tall Muammad (for their onomasticon, see Zadok, 1994, p. 48a; Sassmannshausen, 1999, pp. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. Iraq Museum, Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including Oxford University. The Babylonian territory had experienced internal strife and rebellion and the people of Elam took advantage of this situation and conquered Babylon. 1-14. It is thought that the Kassites originated as tribal groups in the Zagros Mountains to the north-east of Babylonia. West of Edin: Tell al-Deylam and the Babylonian City of Dilbat The Biblical Archaeologist , Vol. Who Were the Assyrians in the Bible? - Synonym In the 12th century Elam struck the final blow at Kassite power in Babylonia, already weakened by local insurrection. A. More could be said about archaeology and the conquest of Canaan but for the sake of this post I will not include everything. [38], The annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib detail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along the along the Diyala River between the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. Donbaz, Veysel. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Before entering Mesopotamia they were illiterate mountain people speaking a language that is not known today. Biblical Archaeology - Significant Discoveries from Ancient Empires. During this time, Joseph was born and eventually sold into Egypt. "uqamuna und u/imalija." Why Did Christ Ride a Donkey on His Triumphant Entry? (Kassites). The Journal of Ancient EgyptianInterconnections makes a very strong argument that it is not representing Israel but the field is quite divided on this piece. The demise of the Kassite dynasty was caused mainly by external factors. They acted along with palatial and temple ones (see Edens, 1994, pp. 1360 to 1220 BCE. 38, no. History and Archaeology of the World's Oldest CityBabel/Babylon and 1, 1989, pp. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak.

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